Historical background

Undyed linen

While wool was the most commonly dyed textile, linen was also widely used. However, dyeing linen was more difficult and less common due to the nature of the fibre. Linen is made from cellulose fibres, which are less porous and more chemically resistant than the protein fibres found in wool or silk. This made linen harder to dye and less colourfast, meaning it was more prone to fading—especially in sunlight or with repeated washing.

As a result, linen was usually left undyed and used in its natural off-white, greyish, or beige tones. This is why historical undergarments, shirts, chemises, coifs, and household linens were almost always white or uncoloured.

In regions like Flanders and the Low Countries, flax growing and linen production were major industries. Cities like Leuven, Kortrijk, and Haarlem were renowned for their high-quality linen. However, most of this linen was exported undyed, or bleached using grass-bleaching—a method where fabric was laid out in the sun and periodically moistened to achieve a clean, white finish.

In fact, bleaching was far more common than dyeing. The linen bleaching fields (blekerijen) were an essential part of the textile landscape in the Low Countries and northern Germany.

Dyed Linen

To dye linen effectively, stronger mordants were required—such as alum, iron, or even stale urine. The fabric had to be boiled or soaked for long periods. Even then, linen dyes tended to produce muted or pastel tones, unless expensive dyeing methods were employed.

Despite these challenges, dyed linen did exist. Common colours included light blue, faded yellow, pinkish red, grey, and brown.

Recent (still unpublished) research on 15th- and 16th-century clothing suggests that some linens, fustians, and buckrams were dyed in more vibrant colours than previously assumed. Little is known about the techniques or the industry, but Bruges is mentioned as being famous for beautiful linen fabrics. Most of these were used for household items or practical garments.

The research paper refers to blue or white-blue striped fustians listed in a shop inventory. These would have been used for tablecloths, napkins, or bed coverings, as seen in 15th-century manuscripts and some surviving examples. Blue linen aprons were common accessories for women of all social classes. However, it is uncertain how vibrant this blue would have been, and coloured aprons appear to have been the exception rather than the norm.

Before the 15th century, there is no evidence for the use of coloured plant-based fibres in outer garments. However, the research mentioned above suggests that at least some outerwear was made from such materials. An Antwerp record from the second half of the 16th century mentions "a buckram summer coat edged with velvet." At the court of Philip the Good, black fustian was used to make summer doublets. Red fustian was used for the doublets of the boatmen who rowed a welcoming party to Sluis to greet his fiancée, Isabella of Portugal.

In the historical re-enactment community, the material used for summer outer garments is often debated. It remains a matter of speculation, though fine wool is typically assumed to be the primary fibre for such clothing.

Undyed Wool

Before the widespread use of dyes, wool was often used in its natural, undyed state. The natural colour of sheep’s wool provided a practical, affordable, and sometimes aesthetically pleasing option—especially for the lower classes, though not exclusively.

The most common natural wool colours in Central Europe were:

●      White or off-white – This was the most desirable wool for dyeing, as it allowed for the most vibrant colours. Many sheep breeds were selectively bred for white fleece for this reason.

●      Grey – Ranging from light silver to darker charcoal tones, grey wool was often used undyed for practical garments, cloaks, and everyday wear.

●      Brown – Shades of brown, from soft tan to deep chocolate, were also common and frequently used without further modification in rustic or utilitarian clothing.

 ●      Black – True black wool is relatively rare in nature, but some breeds produced a very dark fleece. However, "black" wool was often actually a very dark brown or grey.

These natural tones were sometimes left undyed, particularly for workwear or undergarments, but were also combined in weaving patterns to create stripes, checks, or “medley” cloths (fabrics made from differently coloured fibres blended before spinning). The use of these contrasting weaving patterns dates back to the Iron Age, possibly earlier, and continued into the Middle Ages. It reached peak popularity in the 13th and early 14th centuries, after which patterned weaves appear to diminish in frequency.

In some guild-regulated contexts, particularly in Flanders and the Low Countries, natural-coloured wools were also used for specific textile grades. The wool trade in cities such as Bruges and Ghent included both dyed and undyed cloths, with white wool often being exported to dyeing centres elsewhere.

Dyed Wool

Dyeing wool was a skilled craft practiced throughout Central Europe for centuries, ranging from household-level production to professional dyeworks regulated by guilds. Wool is highly receptive to dyes—especially natural ones derived from plants, insects, and minerals.

The dyeing process typically followed these key steps:

●      Scouring – The wool was soaked and gently heated in water with a mild alkaline agent such as wood ash lye, soapwort, or aged urine. This process cleaned the wool of dirt, impurities, and lanolin (the natural grease), and prepared it to absorb dye more effectively.

●      Mordanting – Mordanting is the process of treating the wool with a chemical agent that helps the dye bind to the fibres and improves colourfastness. Common historical mordants included:
 • Alum (potassium aluminum sulfate): the most common, producing bright, clear colours
 • Iron: used to darken colours or create greys and blacks
 • Copper: occasionally used for greens and blues
 • Urine: provided ammonia, aiding dye uptake and colour development

●      Dyeing – Once mordanted, the wool was immersed in a dye bath made from a wide range of natural materials, including madder roots, woad leaves, lichens, or even insects like kermes. Dyeing could take several hours, and wool was sometimes dyed multiple times or layered with different dyes to achieve the desired shade. Dyers often reused dye baths, with each successive batch producing lighter or more muted colours—a method known as exhaust dyeing.

●      Rinsing and Drying – After dyeing, the wool was thoroughly rinsed in cool water to remove excess dye and mordant residues, then hung to dry in the shade to prevent fading.

Given the complexity of this process, it's no surprise that brighter colours were more expensive. They not only required more dyestuff, but also purer mordants and higher-quality wool. Some dyes, like indigo or cochineal, had to be imported over long distances and were heavily taxed, further increasing their prestige and cost.

Silk was the most luxurious textile in medieval and early modern Europe—and its vibrant colours played a key role in that reputation. Unlike wool or linen, silk absorbs dyes quickly and brilliantly, making it ideal for rich, saturated tones. Because silk is a protein fibre, like wool, it bonds very well with natural dyes. The dyeing process is very similar, but its delicate structure required more care. This meant that the best silk dyeing was often done by specialist dyers.

Not only was silk a costly material to begin with (largely imported from the East or Italy), but the dyes themselves—especially kermes, indigo, and cochineal—were rare and heavily taxed. As a result, brightly dyed silks were a symbol of wealth and status, often regulated by sumptuary laws that restricted their use to certain classes.

In Central Europe, cities like Bruges, Cologne and Augsburg imported raw or dyed silk from Italy, Spain and the Levant. Local dye workshops also developed, often linked to guild systems that protected knowledge and restricted access to certain dye techniques.

Cotton, a plant-based (cellulose) fabric, behaves much like linen when it comes to dyeing. When it became increasingly popular in Europe from the Late Middle Ages onwards, it posed unique challenges for dyers. Cotton fibres are more chemically resistant and less porous than wool or silk, which made it difficult for traditional dyes to adhere properly. To successfully dye cotton, stronger mordants and more intensive preparation were required.

Despite these methods, colours on cotton were often less intense and colourfast than those on wool or silk. The exact techniques used to obtain vibrant colours on cotton and blended fabrics like fustian remain unknown, but the dyers of Bruges and Augsburg were among the first in Central Europe to achieve notable results. By the early modern period, most European dyers had developed effective methods for colouring cotton.

By the 18th century, cotton had become the dominant textile fibre in Europe, thanks in part to colonial cotton plantations and the rapid growth of the textile industry in cities like Manchester and Ghent. Another major transformation came in the 19th century with the birth of synthetic dye chemistry. In 1856, English chemist William Henry Perkin accidentally discovered mauveine, the first synthetic dye, while attempting to synthesise quinine. This marked the beginning of a chemical revolution.

Fifty years later dozens of synthetic dyes were commercially available, offering brighter, more stable, and cheaper alternatives to natural dyes. These synthetic dyes adhered well to cotton and required less time and skill to apply. Aniline dyes, derived from coal tar, quickly replaced traditional dyes like madder and indigo for most commercial cotton dyeing.

This development also signalled the decline of natural dyeing traditions, which had been the backbone of textile colouration for millennia. The accessibility of synthetic dyes made bright colours available to the masses—not just the elite. Where red or purple garments once indicated wealth, they were now part of everyday fashion.